Document Type : Research Paper

Author

• Saman Shafiee

Ph.D, International Law, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran

Abstract

Introduction

Body searches, especially strip and cavity searches, inherently violate human dignity and privacy. However, prisons often have no alternative means to prevent the entry of prohibited objects or substances. For this reason, international human rights institutions and documents have, in certain circumstances, permitted their use. Nevertheless, these authorities emphasize specific guidelines regarding the methods of implementation, especially when applied to special groups such as children and patients. The present study aimed to examine the various methods of body searches and explore the legality and illegality of intrusive procedures, including strip and body cavity searches. It intended to delineate the boundaries of prohibited territory and identify circumstances that may constitute cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment, or even torture. The analysis focused on the requirements and protective measures mandated by international human rights documents and institutions. These include ensuring that inspection staff are of the same sex as prisoners and detainees, preventing prison doctors from involvement in physical inspections, and addressing the psychological and physical vulnerabilities of children during such procedures. Finally, Iran’s domestic laws, regulations, and executive procedures in prisons and penal institutions were evaluated and analyzed in comparison with established human rights standards.

Literature Review

Persian-language books and theses have occasionally discussed this topic, but no research has specifically investigated the practice of body searches on detainees and prisoners or assessed whether Iranian domestic laws and regulations comply with international human rights standards. For this reason, the present study constitutes original research.

Materials and Methods

Employing a descriptive–analytical method, the present study drew on library and documentary sources to examine human rights instruments, declarations, resolutions, and other international documents—particularly the United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners, as reflected in the Bangkok Rules and the Nelson Mandela Rules. Furthermore, it relied on the reasoning articulated in numerous judgments of the European Court of Human Rights, as well as the reports of the UN Special Rapporteur on Torture (CAT) and the European Committee for the Prevention of Torture (CPT), to extract the relevant human rights standards governing body searches. Ultimately, the study evaluated and analyzed Iran’s domestic laws and regulations in comparison with these international standards.

Results and Discussion

International institutions, human rights documents, and the procedures of human rights courts have consistently examined the circumstances in which body searches of prisoners may result in cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment, and in more severe cases, torture. However, no definitive or conclusive position has been established on this issue. The boundary between the legitimate need to maintain prison safety and security and the obligation to respect the human dignity of prisoners remains unclear. Institutions such as the European Court of Human Rights and the European Committee for the Prevention of Torture do not, by default, classify strip and body searches of prisoners as torture or cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment. However, they acknowledge that if these actions are carried out in an extreme manner, they can lead to feelings of humiliation and degradation, thereby constituting inhuman treatment and, in certain cases, falling within the definition of torture under Article 3 of the European Convention on Human Rights. In Wainwright v. the United Kingdom (2006), the Strasbourg Court clarified the interpretative standards of Article 3 of the Convention. It held that maltreatment falls within the scope of Article 3 only when it reaches a certain threshold of severity. This threshold is relative and must be assessed in light of all the circumstances, including the duration of the treatment; its physical and psychological effects; and the victim’s sex, age, and health condition. The court emphasized that degrading treatment is incompatible with Article 3 when the suffering it inflicts exceeds the inevitable level of distress or humiliation inherent in lawful sanctions.  Similarly, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights has ruled that certain invasive searches of women may amount to sexual violence and, owing to their severe consequences, constitute acts of torture. In the same vein, the United Nations Special Rapporteurs on Torture have underscored that strip or cavity searches conducted for a prohibited purpose, or carried out in a discriminatory manner that results in severe pain or suffering, can reach the threshold of torture.
The two principal sets of Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners—the Bangkok Rules and the Nelson Mandela Rules—permit strip and body searches only when strictly necessary and urge prison authorities to develop appropriate alternatives to intrusive searches. In light of international human rights instruments and standards, the three fundamental principles of legality, necessity, and proportionality serve as the essential pillars underpinning the legitimacy of body searches, particularly strip searches and internal body examinations. The landmark judgment of the European Court of Human Rights in Wainwright v. the United Kingdom constitutes a turning point in delineating the permissible boundaries of state interference with personal privacy. The Court held that the legitimacy of strip searches requires a clear legal basis, a legitimate aim, and compliance with the principles of necessity and proportionality. In the Canadian legal system, standards such as reasonableness and justifiability are recognized as key benchmarks for assessing the permissibility of such measures, with courts consistently stressing the need for specific and well-founded suspicion prior to authorizing them. In the United States, despite the absence of a coherent judicial approach, growing legal criticism and empirical evidence point to the inefficacy and harmful consequences of searches conducted without reasonable suspicion. Accordingly, adherence to the principles of legality, necessity, and proportionality constitutes the normative foundation for the legal and legitimate conduct of bodily searches under international human rights law.

Conclusion

In all respects, human rights documents and institutions have not absolutely prohibited carrying out strip searches or cavity searches, but they do require that such practices be subject to certain considerations. Some international institutions, such as the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, as well as several states, have taken a more sensitive approach by explicitly prohibiting intrusive searches or adopting measures to lessen their detrimental impact. In Iran, strip and cavity searches are essentially prohibited under prison regulations, except in cases where they are deemed absolutely necessary. Even in such circumstances, several considerations must be observed: the procedure should be carried out by trained personnel, conducted in private, performed without the use of cameras, and in full compliance with ethical principles and medical norms. One particularly important concern raised in international human rights documents—relevant to the reform of domestic laws and regulations—is the absence of specific provisions regarding body searches of children. To align with human rights standards, cavity searches must be explicitly prohibited in child protection policies, laws, and regulations concerning the treatment of imprisoned children under the age of eighteen.

Keywords

• Body Searches
• Torture
• Cruel
• Inhuman or Degrading Treatment
• the Nelson Mandela Rules

Main Subjects

• International Law