Document Type : Research Paper

Authors

1 Faculty member, Allame Tabatabaei University, Tehran, Iran

2 M.A of International Law, Islamic Azad University,North Branch, Tehran, Iran

Abstract

The current refugee and migration crisis in Europe has intensified different forms of vulnerability including different types of sexual and gender- based violence for female refugee as well as asylum seekers. These women, who are travelling to seek refuge in Europe, may be exposed to various kinds of violence on the route, transit or destination countries. The lack of adequate accommodation or reception facilities in European countries and taking irregular migration paths with smugglers, have amplified the vulnerability of refugee women. Considering the increasing number of refugee single women and unaccompanied children towards Europe since 2016, international organisations and European NGOs expanded working on recognition and providing legal and medical protection for vulnerable women. The UNHCR, according to its supervisory responsibility has emphasised on assisting European countries to fulfill their international obligations under the 1951 Convention and the 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees as well as other European instruments relating to refugee law. This paper has assessed the status of victims of gender violence. Moreover, it has overviewed UNHCR's guidelines and actions to prevent and response to sexual and gender-based violence in crisis situation in Europe.

Keywords

الف- فارسی
کتاب
-          صفایی، جواد، (1374)، توسعه و تحول حقوق پناهندگان، چاپ اول، تهران: دفتر مطالعات سیاسی و بین‌المللی وزارت امور خارجه.
 
مقاله‌ها
-          پرویزی، جمشید و پرویزی، بشیر، (1394)، «سه دهه تحول در سیاست مهاجرت و پناهندگی اتحادیه اروپا»، فصلنامه سیاست خارجی، سال 29، شماره 1.
-          خاک، روناک، (1387)، «جرم انگاری خشونت جنسی در حقوق بین‌المللی کیفری»، مجله حقوقی بینالمللی، سال بیست و پنجم، شماره 39.
-          داشاب، مهریار، (1383)، «منشور حقوق اساسی اتحادیه اروپایی (7 دسامبر 2000)»، فصلنامه پژوهش حقوق و سیاست، دوره 6 ، شماره 13.
-          سیفی، آناهیتا، (1396)، «علل و پیامدهای زنانه شدن مهاجرت‌ بین‌المللی در پرتو امنیت انسانی با تأکید بر حقوق بین‌الملل: چالش‌ها و راهکارها»، فصلنامه پژوهشنامه زنان، سال هشتم، شماره 1.
-          کیهانلو، فاطمه، (1388)، «نقش قواعد بین‌المللی حقوق بشر در تبیین مفهوم "عضویت در گروه اجتماعی خاص" به عنوان یکی از دلایل اعطای پناهندگی»، فصلنامه حقوق، دوره 39، شماره 1.
-          کیهانلو، فاطمه، (1386)، «مفهوم آزار منتهی به پناهندگی در رویه قضایی کشورهای پناهنده پذیر»، مجله حقوقی، شماره 36.
-          مؤذن زادگان، حسنعلی، حیدری، محمد علی و نیکو منظری، امین، (1392)، «خصومت‌های مسلحانه و خشونت علیه زنان و کودکان از منظر مقررات بین‌المللی»، فصلنامه زن و فرهنگ، سال پنجم، شماره 17.
 
ب‌-     انگلیسی
Books
-           Bauböck, Rainer and Tripkovic, Milena, (2017), The Integration of Migrants and Refugees, European University Institute Publication.
 -           Mole, Nuala and Meredith, Catherine, (2010), Asylum and European Convention on Human Rights, Council of Europe Publication.
 -           Lauterpacht, Sir Elihu and Bethlehem, Daniel, (2003), Refugee Protection in International Law: UNHCR's Global Consultations on International Protection, Cambridge University Press.
 
-           Goodwin-Gill, Guy, (1996), The Refugee in International Law, Oxford University Press.
 
 
Articles
-           Freedman, Jane, (2016), ˮSexual and Gender-based Violence against Refugee Women: A Hidden Aspect of the Refugee Crisisˮ, Reproductive Health Matters, Volume 24, Issue 47.
 -           Garlick, Madeline, (2014), ˮStrenghening Refugee Protection and Meeting Challenges: The European Union's Next Steps on Asylumˮ, MPI Europe Policy Brief, Issue No.5.
 -           Piotrowicz, Ryszard, (2012), ˮStates’ Obligations under Human Rights Law towards Victims of Trafficking in Human beingˮ, International Journal of Refugee Law, Volume 24, No. 2.
     -           Türk, Volker, (2016), ˮProspects for Responsibility Sharing in the Refugee Contextˮ, Journal on Migration and Human Security, Volume 4, No. 3.
 -           Türk, Volker and Garlick, Madeline, (2016), ˮFrom Burdens and Responsibilities to Opportunities: The Comprehensive Refugee Response Framework and a Global Compact on Refugeesˮ, The International Journal of Refugee Law, Volume 28, No. 4.
 -           Türk, Volker and Eyster, Elizabeth, (2010), ˮStrengthening Accountability in UNHCRˮ, International Journal of Refugee Law, Volume 22, No. 2
 
 
Working Papers and Reports
-           Amnesty International, (2016), Refugee Women in Syria Uprooted and Unprotected in Lebanon, 2 February 2016, available at: https://www.amnesty.org /en/documents/mde18/3210/2016/en/ (Last accessed: 20th Dec 2017).
-           Amnesty International, (2016), Female Refugees Face Physical Assault, Exploitation and Sexual, harassment on their journey through Europe, Available at: https:// www. amnesty. org/ en/ latest/ news/2016/01/female-refugees-face-physical-assault-exploitation-and-sexual-harassment-on-their-journey-through-europe   (Last accessed: 20 th Dec 2017).
 -           Cotterill, Nicolas and Others, (2016), Hidden Struggles: Filling Information Gaps Regarding Adversities Faced by Refugee Women in Europe, Refugee Rights, Immigration Council of Ireland.
 -           Muižnieks, Nils ,(2016), The Commissioner's Human Rights Comments- ˮHuman Rights of Refugee and Migrant Women and Girls Need to be Better Protectedˮ, 07/03/2016 , Available at: https:// www. coe.int/nn/web/commissioner/-/human-rights-of-refugee-and-migrant-women-and-girls-need-to-be-better-protected?desktop=false (Last accessed 20th Dec 2017).
 -           Sansonetti, Silvia, (2016),  Female Refugees and Asylum Seekers: The Issue of Integration, European Parliament, Policy Department C: Citizens’ Rights and Constitutional Affairs, avilable at: http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/ etudes/ STUD/2016/556929/IPOL_STU(2016)556929_EN.pdf. (Last accessed 05th Oct 2018).
 -           Shreeves, Rosamund, (2016), Gender Aspects of Migration and Asylum in the EU: An Overview, European Parliament Research Service, available at: http:// www. europarl. europa. eu/ thinktank/ en/document.html?reference= EPRS_BRI (2016)579072, Last accessed 12 Oct 2018)
 -           UNHCR, (2014), Position Paper on Violence against Women and Girls in the European Union and Persons of Concern to UNHCR.
 -           United Nations Refugee Agency, United Nations Population Fund and Women’s Refugee Commission (UNHCR, UNFPA, WRC), (2016), Initlal Assessment Report: Protection Risks for Women and Girls in the European Refugee and Migrant Crisis.
 -           UNHCR Report, (2015), The Sea Route to Europe: Mediterranean Passage in the Age of Refugees.
 -           UNHCR, (1991), Guidelines on the Protection of Refugee Women.
 -           UNHCR, (1994), Refugee Children: Guidelines on Protection and Care.
 -           UNHCR, (2006), Specific Guidance on Trafficking.
 -           UNHCR, (2009), Guidelines on Female Genital Mutilation (FGM).
 -           UNHCR, (2011), Protectors, Providers, Survivors: A Dialogue with Refugee Women in Finland.
 -           UNHCR, (2014), Violence against Women and Girls in the European Union and Persons of Concern to UNHCR.
 -           UNHCR, (1995), Sexual Violence against Refugees, Guidelines on Prevention and Response.
 -           UNHCR, (2002), Guidelines on Gender-Related Persecution.
 -           UNHCR, (2002), Guidelines on Membership of a Particular Social Group.
 -           UNHCR, (1979), Collection of International Instruments Concerning Refugees, Selected Edition, UNHCR Publication, Geneva.
 -           UNHCR, (2003), Sexual and Gender-Based Violence against Refugees, Returnees and Internally Displaced Persons, Guideline for prevention and Responses, UNHCR Publication/
 -           UNHCR, (2008), Handbook for the Protection of Women and Girls, UNHCR Publication, Geneva.
 -           UNHCR, (2003), The Agenda for Protection, “Meeting the Protection Needs of Refugee Women and Children”, Third Edition, Department of International Protection.
 
International Treaties and Other Instruments:
-           European Charter of Fundamental Human Rights, 7 December 2000.
-           International Criminal Court Status (The Rome Statute), 1st July 2002.
-           Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women (DEVAW), 20th December 1993.
-           Resolution (S/RES/1325) on women and peace and security,  31st October 2000.
-           European Parliament, Resolution with recommendations to the Commission on combating Violence against Women, 25th February 2014.
-           European Parliament and Council of Europe, Regulation (EU) No 604/2013, 26th June 2013.
-           Council of Europe Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence, May 2011.
-           UNHCR, ExCom Conclusion on Refugee Protection and Sexual Violence No, 73 (XLIV), 1993.
-           UNHCR, ExCom Conclusion on Women and Girls at Risk, No. 105 (LVII), 2006.
 
 
Websites:
  Amnesty International website, EU: Countries have Fulfilled Less than a Third of their Asylum Relocation Promises, available at: https://www.amnesty.org/ en/latest/ news/2017/09/eu-countries-have-fulfilled-less-than-a-third-of-their-asylum-relocation-promises/ (last accessed on 10 Jan 2018).
 -             UNHCR website, The Executive Committee’s Origins and Mandate, available at: http:// www. unhcr. org/ executive-committee.html  ( last accessed on 24 Dec 2017).