نوع مقاله : مقاله پژوهشی

نویسندگان

1 گروه حقوق دانشگاه مازندران

2 دانشگاه مازندران

چکیده

با توجه به تبعات و آثار گسترده آسیب­های زیست‌محیطی فرامرزی، امروزه دولت­ها برای مقابله با آنها از رویکرد سنتی که ماهیتی جبرانی داشت فاصله گرفته و به رویکرد پیشگیری تمایل بیشتری نشان می‌دهند. تجربه و یافته‌های علمی نشان می‌دهد که پیشگیری از آسیب‌های زیست‌محیطی علاوه بر فواید آن برای محیط زیست به لحاظ اقتصادی نیز مقرون به صرفه بوده و از این‌رو به قاعده طلایی و برج مراقبت حقوق بین­الملل محیط زیست معروف است. این مقاله با استفاده از روش کتابخانهای و بهرهگیری از اسناد و رویه قضایی بینالمللی، فن ترکیبی توصیف، تبیین و فهم را به کار گرفته و در پی شناساندن اجزای شاکله تعهد دولت‌ها به پیشگیری از آسیب‌های فرامرزی است. دستاورد مقاله این است که اولاُ تعهد به پیشگیری، تعهدی دو جزیی است که از دو عنصر ماهوی (تلاش مقتضی) و شکلی (همکاری) تشکیل شده است و هر یک از این عناصر نیز اجزایی دارند که وجودشان برای احراز مسئولیت دولت منشا ضروری است، ثانیاً با توجه به گستره آثار منفی آسیب‌های فرامرزی، عناصر ماهوی و شکلی مکمل هم بوده و احراز هر دو عنصر برای ایفای تعهد به پیشگیری ضروری است.
 

کلیدواژه‌ها

عنوان مقاله [English]

Analysis of the Elements of Obligation to Prevent Trans boundary Environmental Harm

نویسندگان [English]

  • Ramin Yarmohammadi 1
  • Zahra Mahmoudi Kordi 2

1 ۤFaculty of Law Mazandaran University

2 University of Mazandarn

چکیده [English]

Due to the advancement of industry and increasing economic activities, environmental interferences have been raised, which has led to the emergence of transboundary harm. Given the widespread effects of transboundary harm, governments have departed from a traditional compensation-based approach to a preventive approach. Experiences and scientific findings show that in addition to its environmental benefits, the preventive approach is economical and therefore is known as the Golden Rule and the Environmental Watch Tower. This article seeks to identify the main elements of the states’ obligation to prevent transboundary harm, using international instruments and precedents. It is concluded that firstly, the obligation to prevent includes two elements: substantial (or due diligence) and procedural (or cooperation), each of which has their structures or components whose existence is essential in identification of the responsibility of the state of origin. Secondly, considering the extent and the negative effects of transboundary harm, the two elements are intrinsic and inseparable, both necessary to fulfill the state’s commitment to prevention.

کلیدواژه‌ها [English]

  • Trans boundary Environmental Harm
  • Obligation to Prevent
  • Due diligence
  • Cooperation
  • the State of Origin
الف- فارسی
-           مرادی، حسن، حقوق محیط­زیست بین­الملل، جلد اول، چاپ اول (تهران: نشر میزان، 1392).
 
ب- انگلیسی
Books
-            Kiss, Alexandre, Shelton, Dinah, Guide to International Environmental Law, (United States of America: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2007).
 -            Lefber. R., Transboundary Environmental Interference and the Origin of State Liability (The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 1999).
 -            Xue, H, Transboundary Damage in International Law, Vol. 27 (Cambridge University Press, 2003).
 
Articles
-            Flemme, M., “Due Diligence in International Law”, Lup Student Papers, (2005).
 -            Jervan, M, “The Prohibition of Trans Boundary Environmental Harm, an Analysis of the Contribution of the International Court of Justice to the Development of the No-Harm Rule”, PluriCourts Research Paper”, (2014), No. 14-17.
 -             Koivurova, T., “Due Diligence, Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law”, Oxford University Press, Oxford”, (2013), available at: https://www.arcticcentre.org/loader.aspx?id= 78182718- doc9- 4833- 97b3-b69299e2f127, (Last visited: June 15, 2018).
 -            Pedersen, O.W, “Environmental Principles and Environmental Justice”, Environmental Law Review”, (2010), Vol. 12, No. 1.
 -            Plakokefalos, I., “Prevention Obligations in International Environmental Law”, Yearbook of International Environmental Law, (2013), Vol. 23, No. 1.
 -            Rutledge, J. L., “Wait a Second-Is that Rain or Herbicide-the ICJ's Potential Analysis in Aerial Herbicide Spraying and an Epic Choice between the Environment and Human Rights”, Wake Forest L. Rev, (2011), No. 46.
 -            Voigt, C., “State Responsibility for Climate Change Damages”, Nordic Journal of International Law”, Vol. 77, No. 1-2, (2008).
 -            Zeidan, S. M. M., “The Obligation of Prevention and Reduction as an Essential Obligation for State Responsibility for Environmental Damage Caused by Nuclear Activities”, Denver Journal of International Law andPolicy, (2010).
  
Documents & Cases
-            Bamako Convention on the Ban of the Import into Africa and Control of Transboundary Movement and Management of Hazardous Waste within Africa (1991).
 -            Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal, (1989).
 -            Convention on Biological Diversity (1992).
 -            Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in Transboundary Context, Signed at Espoo, on 25 February 1991.
 -            Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (1979).
 -            Convention on the Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses (1997).
 -            Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes, Done at Helsinki, on 12 March 1992.
 -            Convention on the Transboundary Effects of Industrial Accidents. Signed in Helsinki, Finland, on 17 March 1992.
 -            Council Directive 97/11/EC of 3 March 1997 Amending Directive 85/337/EEC on the Assessment of the Effects of Certain Public and Private Projects on the Environment. Available at: http://www.fao.org/faolex/results/ details/en/c/LEX-FAOC018645/, (Last visited, June 19, 2018).
-            Draft Articles on Prevention of Transboundary Harm from Hazardous Activities, with Commentaries (2001), available at: legal. un. org/ ilc/ texts/ instruments/ english/ commentaries/ 9_7_2001.pd. (Last visited: June 16, 2018).
 -            ILC Rep. (2001) Document A56/10. available at: http://www.un.org/ documents/ga/docs/56/a561. (Last visited: June 19, 2018).
-            London Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and other Matter (1972).
 -            The World Charter for Nature (General Assembly Resolution 37/7 of 28 October 1982).
 -             Available at: http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/37/a37r007.htm.  (Last visited: June 16, 2018).
 -            United Nation Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), (1992).
-            United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, (UNCLOS), (1982).
 -            Vienna Convention for Protection of Ozone Layer, (1985).
 
Case Laws, Arbitral Awards & Etc
-            Alabama Arbitration (Took place in Geneva in “1871- 1872” to Reolve Claims Made by United State against Great Britain’s Conduct as a Neutral During the American Civil War “1861-65”).
 -            Case Concerning Land Reclamation by Singapore in and around the Straits of Johor (Malaysia v. Singapore), Provisional Measures, ITLOS No 12 (2003), Available at: legal.un.org/riaa/cases/vol_XXVII/133-145.pdf. (Last visited: June 17, 2018).
 -            Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Cost Arica v. Nicaragua) and Construction of a Road in Costa Rica along the San Juan River (Nicaragua v. Cost Arica), Judgment of 16 December 2015.
 -            Dissenting Opinion of Judges Simma & Al-khasawneh. Available at: www.icj-cij.org/files/case.../135/135-20100420-JUD-01-01-BI.pdf. (Last visited: June 19, 2018).
 -            Gabcikovo Nagymaros Project (Hungary/Slovakia), 1997.
 -            Lac Lanoux Arbitration (France V. Spain) 24 ILR 10, (1957).
 -            Mox Plant Case, (Provisional Measure), ITLOS No 10 (2001), Paras. 84, 89. Available at: https:// www. itlos. org/ fileadmin/ itlos/ documents/ cases/ case_ no_ 10/published/C10-O-3_dec_01.pdf. (Last visited: June 18, 2018).
 -            North Sea Continental Shelf Cases (Federal Republic of Germany/Denmark; Federal Republic of Germany/the Netherlands) Judgment, [1969] ICJ Rep 3.
 -            Portuguese Colonies Case (Portugal V. Germany) Award of 1928, II BR AA (1949).
 -            Trail Smelter Case (United States, Canada), 16 April 1938 and 11 March 1941. Available at: http://legal.un.org/riaa/cases/vol_III/1905-1982.pdf. (Last visited: June 17, 2018).